Confederation became more prominent after the American Civil War (1861-65). The conflict had shaken many colonies within British North America (BNA), who feared being subjugated and annexed by the Union.
Delegates reached a consensus on critical issues, including state-by-state voting and representation, proportional tax burdens based on land values, and veto rights for cabinet members.
The Articles of Confederation
The Articles established a national government that purposely limited its powers. Each state retained “its sovereignty, freedom and independence,” leaving Congress only with specific duties such as making war or signing treaties with American Indians. Congress would consist of representatives from each state; 9 out of 13 must approve measures before passing them; amendments required unanimous approval from all 13 states.
The Articles were in effect only briefly following the Revolutionary War. Although their national government held together long enough for victory to occur, issues soon surfaced that revealed its incapacity for country growth – most significantly, its inability to raise funds was an ongoing source of debt burden among states, which incurred massive amounts while fighting. Even as their new lives as independent nations emerged, paying back debts became an essential government task.
Problems also included Congress’ inability to settle disputes among states, for instance, regarding how people were taxed; southern states wanted only white citizens counted, while northern states preferred including slaves in tax calculations. As a compromise, the Articles stipulated that taxation should be determined based on land and improvements rather than individual citizens.
The lack of a strong central government was detrimental to the new United States, leading to its eventual replacement by the Constitution. Read further to learn about the Articles of Confederation and how its early framework helped shape modern-day America. Look at DocsTeach to access teaching activities incorporating this history into classroom curricula.
The Fathers of Confederation
In 1867, 36 men came together to form Canada. These representatives from Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island all met at one or more of three conferences held at Charlottetown, Quebec City, or London to form a federal constitution for Canada. They are commonly referred to as the Fathers of Confederation.
The Fathers endured a challenging journey through early Canadian politics yet quickly created an effective government structure within three years. Their achievement is remarkable, and its effects can still be felt today over a century later.
Fathers’ principles remain at the core of the Canadian government even after new territories and provinces emerged; they provide the framework for modern federalism in Canada today.
Many of the Founding Fathers were well-known political leaders, yet they also displayed personal characteristics crucial in understanding their achievements: humor, generosity, and determination, among other traits.
The Fathers of Confederation did not come without critics. Their intentions may have been noble, yet their opponents accused them of being narrow-minded, provincialist, and undemocratic. Additionally, critics noted their failure to include an exhaustive list of rights that the legislature could not interfere with.
Regardless of these conflicts, they established a federal system that still serves its purpose today.
Robert Harris’ painting The Fathers of Confederation depicts these individuals, representing those attending the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences that established confederation. Several copies have been reproduced elsewhere since its original display at Charlottetown Conferences, such as the Parliament Building in Ottawa.
The Opponents of Confederation
Anti-Confederates could not come up with any viable alternatives that weren’t self-serving or unrealistic, eventually abandoning efforts at overthrowing Quebec resolutions in favor of safeguarding Maritime interests within new federal structures.
Building the railway was one of many measures taken by the Pope Government. By the time they assumed power, it had become evident that construction of this line meant joining Confederation; indeed, since its route ran through Halifax, with York County being one of its key ports, this was inevitable despite any hostility from Upper Canadians.
Richmond was chosen as the capital of the new United Province of Canada to be within easy reach of critical Maritime ports – something especially significant since PEI and Nova Scotia did not possess large land areas to draw upon for industrial growth, their economy being predominantly agriculture and fishing-driven; by joining forces under one Union, they would ensure this industry did not remain isolated.
At times, anti-Confederates felt as if joining the Union was an admission that their nation had outgrown its constitution and had become part of an expanded American empire; this sentiment was furthered by the decision by the US to annul the Reciprocity Treaty.
Anti-Confederate members in the Assembly demanded that any terms of the Quebec Scheme be put to a public vote through a referendum before accepting it; this was, however, only a minority viewpoint; most Assembly members supported confederation or were neutral; those opposed were predominantly from western counties where Conservatives had historically opposed union.
However, those still supporting the Confederacy could call into question the loyalty of those opposing them, which helped erode support for the anti-Confederate faction. Ultimately, not much resentment existed after Prince Edward Island delegates signed the British North America Act at Halifax in December 1867.
The Establishment of Confederation
In 1777, the Articles of Confederation became the initial American constitution. This document was designed as a wartime alliance among states; therefore, its national government only held limited powers. This system was in effect until 1789, when its successor document came into force: the current-day United States Constitution.
John Dickinson of Delaware led the committee that drafted the Articles of Confederation. Work began on this document in June 1776, and it underwent sixteen revisions before completion in November 1777; shortly after that, it was sent out for ratification. Maryland only joined later and confirmed their ratification on March 1, 1781.
The Articles of Confederation provided a nationwide leader and a general structure for their new government, but Congress could only loan money directly to colonies for war debts. Each state was asked for money but often donated only part or none – placing this new nation’s finances in perpetual crisis.
The Articles also limited Congress’ ability to tax citizens or regulate commerce, leaving Congress unable to raise enough money for its debts or war efforts. Robert Morris, an influential Philadelphia merchant, and superintendent of finance for the Convention, suggested several solutions for helping restore order in society; unfortunately, Congress refused his proposals and ignored him altogether.
The Convention eventually moved the capital from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, Virginia, establishing a permanent Congress with two houses. They elected Jefferson Davis president and Alexander H. Stephens vice president; elections were held throughout each state for its representative in Congress.
Today’s visitors to Charlottetown can visit the historic Confederation Centre of the Arts to view an exquisite replica of Province House’s Upper Foyer, where the Fathers of Confederation met during their historic conference that led to its formation. Parks Canada also offers its film A Building of Destiny, which takes viewers back into history and showcases its revolutionary influence on Canada.
